Essential Ecclesiology of the New Testament
Introduction
First-century Christians lived in an age of massive leadership structures and hierarchies. They were surrounded by imperial administration and religious hierarchies, both pagan and Jewish. Yet Jesus Christ, the Head of the church, called them to a unique style of leadership and organization. Today, the Biblical doctrine of the church and church structure – ecclesiology – is often viewed as a second-class subject, without firm New Testament teaching. Nothing could be farther from the truth. Rather, the New Testament presents a picture of congregational local churches under Christ lead by plural elders and assisted by deacons. This paper aims to present this ecclesiology by considering the congregation, the eldership, and the deaconate as presented in the New Testament.
Congregationalism
The New Testament structure of the church differs dramatically from both the organized hierarchies of Rome and Canterbury, and the democratic bodies of many Baptist churches. Unlike the pure democracies found in many Baptist churches, Biblical ecclesiology demands a top-down structure, with a single Head. Yet unlike Catholicism and Anglicanism, that single ‘head’ is divine: Jesus Christ is His name. In other words, Biblical churches are ‘Christocratic.’ In Ephesians 5:23, Paul explained that “…the husband is the head of the wife even as Christ is the head of the church, his body, and is himself its Savior.” As Johnson explains, “he requires his people to receive ‘all’ their principles of actions from, and to frame ‘all’ their doings according to, his laws and precepts contained in the Bible.” Hence, when a congregation or church leaders make decisions, they must consciously do so in submission to the revealed will of the Savior.
The question may arise, however: does the church, then, have any authority? Can it make decisions? The answer here is yes: it has delegated authority. This doctrine is taught in Matthew 16:15-19, where Peter confesses Jesus as the Christ. Jesus subsequently gives to him the ‘keys of the kingdom.’ Traditional Protestant teaching has sometimes obscured the fact that these keys are given to Peter Himself. Yet Roman Catholicism has likewise erred, assuming that Peter is disconnected from His confession of faith. They fail to recognize the connection with the surrounding verses. Christ speaks of the Church, noting that the powers of hell will be unable to shake her. Here, then, is delegated authority: a power to ‘bind’ and ‘loose.’
This power is described in more detail in Matthew 18:15-20, where Jesus gives further instructions to the Church. He explains that binding and loosing are churchly prerogatives that indicate heavenly realities. The church, in other words, is declaring on earth what is true in heaven. Such prerogatives can be exercised by a Biblical, Christ-submitted church anywhere in the world, even if it is small. These prerogatives, it should be noted, are not limited to the officers of the church. They are delegated to all the faithful in the church. Further, it should be noticed that this authority is delegated to the ‘local church,’ not the universal church: the particularizing references to ‘two or three’ refers to exercising these prerogatives within the domain of a geographically-centered church.
The delegated authority to the church is not absolute. It extends specifically to matters of discipline, doctrine, and selection of officers. The example of congregation-affected discipline is seen in Matthew 18, and Strauch notes that, “Jesus taught that the discipline of an unrepentant, sinning member (after individual efforts to correct the sin had failed) requires the collective wisdom, action, and discipline of the whole congregation…” The authority to judge matters of doctrine is seen in the Epistle to the Galatians, where Paul calls on the entire body of the congregation to reject false teaching. Finally, the authority to select leaders, such as deacons, is described in Acts 6, where the apostles ask the congregation to choose for themselves seven men. While the apostles lay hands on them, it is not the apostles’ choice, but that of the congregation. As Dever notes, “…we see these very apostles handing over responsibility to the congregation; it almost seems that they were recognizing in the church assembly the same kind of ultimate authority, under God, that Jesus recognized in his statements in Matthew 18:15-17.”
The congregation has the authority to make important decisions under Christ. This concept is known as congregationalism, and it demands a unique type of leadership. Like Christ, leaders of this organization must act as servants. Hence, “There is no place for dominating, lordly leaders in a family that is to be marked by mutual love…brotherhood, submission, and humility…” In fact, Clarke demonstrated the same through deep research into first-century power structures. He noted that Paul shunned the use of traditional authority terms and “Paul, together with other New Testament writers, preferred, rather, to speak of service or ministry, using the διακονια word-group.” Indeed, as Duncan pointed out from 1 Corinthians 13:1, “words apart from love are ‘obnoxious.’”
Congregationalism, then, is the New Testament form for church government. “Is Congregationalism democracy,” asks Dever? “Though congregationalism and democracy have some important similarities and common principles, the simple answer must be no, not entirely.” Christ is still the head, and there is a role for servant leaders.
The Eldership
Strauch says that “Christ ministers through all the members because all are Spirit-indwelt, but all members do not function as shepherds to the whole community – the council of elders does that.” Such a concept is seen throughout the example and teaching of the New Testament. Why? Because, as Dever notes, “A world without authority would be like desires with no restraints, …an intersection with no traffic lights, a game with no rules…” This is why Christ, the Great Shepherd, has committed the flock to the care of under-shepherds, elders.
It is worth re-emphasizing that the authority structure in the church is radically different from that form of authority which is seen in the world. “For Paul, the nature of the Christian εκκλησια demands a significantly different model of organization from that which prevailed in the civic εκκλησια,” notes Clarke. Paul “is a servant both of Christ and to the church, and as such he labours and applies to himself metaphors of manual work…” Paul’s servanthood is not something unique to the apostolic role. In Acts 20, Paul commends his servanthood and unceasing toil to the Ephesian elders.
One primary role of the elders is to oversee the doctrine of the church, guarding against false teachers. This is highlighted in Paul’s speech to the Ephesian elders, where he warns the elders in Acts 20:28 to “pay careful attention to yourselves and all the flock.” This is also seen in the Pastoral Epistles of 1 Timothy and Titus. On those books, Madsen notes that,
“False doctrine threatens the very existence of the church by obscuring its distinctive identity and the gospel itself. Consequently, Timothy must oppose local heretics and appoint elders who will join him in this struggle. The same challenge confronts Titus (1:5-11). False teaching has come to Crete, and he needs to answer it with the help of reliable overseers. Thus, both letters envision a two-sided teaching ministry involving offense and defense: the overseer must conserve the gospel entrusted to him and directly refute heresy.”
The observant reader will notice that there has been a shift of terminology, from ‘elder’ to overseer.’ Such a shift is not an oversight. The New Testament links the words ‘pastor,’ ‘overseer,’ and ‘elder’ together as synonymous terms. The strongest argument for this is seen in the role of all three groups. Pastors are literally ‘shepherds.’ Elders are called to ‘shepherd’ the flock of God (1 Peter 5:2). The overseer is also to ‘shepherd’ or ‘care for’ God’s flock (Acts 20:28), and the terms ‘overseer’ and ‘elder’ are used synonymously in Titus 1:5-7. Hence, these three terms – pastor, elder, and overseer – along with more recent synonyms for them – such as bishop, shepherd, or presbyter – all refer to the same office. It is an office that shepherds God’s flock by preserving the Gospel and countering false teaching.
The office of elder is presented uniformly throughout Scripture as a plural office – that is, the idea of a sole pastor in a church is never observed. Every reference to elders is a reference to more than one, so that Dever can confidently assert, “The Bible clearly models a plurality of elders in each local church.” Merkle concurs; after a study of the relevant passages, he concludes that “There was no monarchical bishop when the Pastorals were written. Instead, the terms ‘elder’ and ‘overseer’ (or bishop) were used interchangeably to represent the same office.”
Acts 20:17-38 is the first significant passage regarding eldership in the New Testament. It is “a virtual manual for pastoral elders,” and as such provides important ministry philosophy for all elders. Paul warns against “fierce wolves” (v. 29) and recommends alertness. He commends his own example of faithful, laborious ministry, with a special emphasis on selflessness in the ministry.
The book of 1 Timothy contains further rich instruction for elders, especially in 3:1-7 (qualifications for elders) and 5:17-20 (instructions to elders). Paul’s letter to Timothy (and to Titus, for that matter) contains “…the topical category of estate stewardship simply as a controlling metaphor employed by Paul to communicate to Timothy and Titus.” This metaphor becomes useful as the stewardship motif remains for elders. They live in the ‘house of God,’ and they must manage it wisely. They will give account to the Master.
Part of the genius of 1 Timothy is that it provides detailed instructions on who is eligible to be an elder. While the requirements are essentially the goal of every Christian man, they remain hard-hitting for the church today. For example, the elder is a one-woman man, since God created marriage “to illustrate the relation between believers and Christ.” On another front, while the elder is able to deal with false teaching, he is not quarrelsome, and “those who look for and like to engage in those theological bar-brawls, are disqualified from eldership.” Of course, one primary requirement for the elder is that he must be able to teach. Such a requirement is not necessary for deacons, nor is it necessarily the goal of all Christians. Rather, it points to a primary method by which elders can shepherd the church, and by which they can prevent false teaching: by clearly understanding and proclaiming God’s word.
One of the implicit qualifications which is not stated directly is that of faithfulness. Paul mentions in 1 Corinthians 4:2 that “it is require of stewards that they be found faithful.” A lack of faithfulness, of course, would be a ‘reproach’ to an elder, something which would disqualify him. The 2019 Shepherds Conference focused on the theme of faithfulness in every area of life, highlighting the significance of this theme. While much of Biblical ecclesiology certainly focuses on a correct understanding of authority and church offices, it is just as important to remember that Biblical ecclesiology is also ethical. Because the church is the house of God, ecclesiology also focuses much on what one does in the church and how one serves, not just what offices exist. In a particularly powerful illustration of faithfulness in ministry, Baucham shared the story of W. A. Phillips, a missionary to Zambia in the early twentieth century who labored for five years before gaining a single convert. Such an example of faithfulness is sorely needed not only on the mission field, but among God’s stewards in His household today.
In 1 Timothy 5:17-20, Paul – in the middle of general directions for different demographics in the church – recommends special honor for those elders who “labor in preaching and teaching.” He also provides advice on how to deal with accusations against elders. The advice indicates that elders may be the target of false accusations because of their important role in the church, but that such a role also carries a higher degree of responsibility and less tolerance for sin.
Paul’s letter to Titus carries on the stewardship motif, and Titus 1:5 shows the dual purposes of Titus’ mission: to set right those things which were undone in Crete, and to appoint elders in every city. Here again, it is interesting to note, the eldership is presented as the primary office of the church, not a secondary office under the bishop. Further, ‘elders’ in the plural are to be appointed, even though the cities throughout Crete had presumably small congregations. Paul lays out, in brief, the requirements for the pastoral office. These are the men who will help Titus to fulfil his role of overlooking God’s household.
The final substantial passage on eldership in the New Testament is found in 1 Peter 5:1-4, where Peter exhorts his fellow elders to shepherd God’s flock with pure motives, avoiding domination and preferring to set examples for God’s people. He promises significant blessing to the elders who perform their duties faithfully.
While the above passages contain substantial teaching about eldership, several other passages in the New Testament mention the eldership. However, it is outside the scope of this paper to examine every reference to eldership.
The Deaconate
So far, then, it is observed that the church is a congregational Christocracy, shepherded by an assembly of pastors / overseers / elders. There is, however, one other significant aspect of church leadership which is clearly taught in the New Testament – the office of deacons. While the direct teaching on this subject is less substantive than that devoted to elders, there is still enough material for a careful reader to make sense of the first-century office.
The need for deacons is presented in Acts 6, where the church in Jerusalem is dealing with an internal squabble about provisions for poor widows. The apostles – who are essentially the elders of the church, engaged in ‘shepherding’ God’s people in Jerusalem – request the assembly to select seven men who can distribute the provisions. This will free the apostles to be able to focus on “prayer” and “the ministry of the word” (Acts 6:4).
It is important to note that the seven men who are selected are never referred to as ‘deacons,’ even though this is often assumed. The reason seems to be Luke’s style of writing history. Luke was an impartial historian, and he refrained from adding commentary to the text. It is probable that these seven were not originally called ‘deacons,’ but were later realized to be the first men who held that office. As such, Luke would include their story because they were the ‘prototypical deacons.’ A judicious historian like Luke would refrain from including a narrative that did not further his goal: an explanation of the origins of the Christian church. In fact, as Strauch notes, “It was a great plan that met a common need, and people are always eager to adapt good ideas to meet their needs. Thus it is reasonable to assume that the Seven became at least a prototype of later deacons.”
Another reason why it is preferable to understand the Seven as the prototypical deacons is because the διακονια word group is used. The apostles report that these men are needed to relieve the apostles of the task of serving tables. The verb used here is διακονειν, from the same root as διακονος, or deacon. In other words, the apostles are requesting seven men who can ‘deacon’ on behalf of the apostles.
By the time of 1 Timothy, the office of deacon was sufficiently widespread that Paul did not need to elaborate. He simply lists the qualifications for these men. Among a variety of qualifications which have many similarities to the qualifications for eldership, the ideal deacon must ‘hold the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience.’ A knowledge of Jesus Christ, then, is an essential prerequisite for the deacon – for, as Duncan noted, “We cannot honor Him as we ought unless we know Him as He is.” Significantly, deacons are not required to be ‘able to teach’ like elders, indicating that their role was not one of public teaching.
1 Timothy 3:8-13 has generated widespread controversy because of the mention of the ‘women’ or ‘wives’ (v. 11). The context is not clear whether this is a class of women or the wives of the deacons. Perhaps the strongest evidence that this refers to a class of ‘deaconesses’ is that Paul uses the word ‘likewise,’ as if equating the ‘women’ with the ‘deacons.’ Also, Romans 16:1 mentions Phoebe, the ‘servant’ of the church at Cenchrea – but the word ‘servant’ could be translated ‘deacon.’
On the other hand, the section on the ‘women’ is rudely thrown into the middle of the section for male deacons. The qualifications are repetitive. The ‘women’ are not referred to as ‘deaconnesses,’ although it would make sense to use that term if a specific order is being referred to. While the evidence is ambiguous, it is probably best to follow Strauch in concluding, “…this last interpretation [wives of deacons] allows all the pieces to fit together best. It is the simplest and most natural interpretation.” By including the requirements for the deacon’s wives, Paul is admitting that they are often involved in the practical ministry entailed by the office of the deacon.
At this point it is important to circle back to the question of the role of deacons. Acts 6, as already observed, probably presents the ‘prototypical deacons’ of the Church in Jerusalem. 1 Timothy spells out qualifications for men who are evidently engaged in non-teaching-oriented service to the church, service in which their wives can assist them. Based on these assumptions, the role of the deacon would be twofold. First, it frees the overseers/elders of the church for prayer and direct teaching ministry. Second, it does this through ministry to the needy in the church community. Merkle echoes this thought, nothing that,
“Because Paul does not list any of the duties deacons should perform, it is likely that the early church understood the Seven chosen in Acts 6 to be a model for their own ministry. That is, as deacons they were responsible for caring for the physical needs of the congregation and doing whatever was needed so that the elders could focus on their work of teaching and shepherding.”
In summary, then, the office of the deacon was created to free the elders from needs in the congregation that could impede their ability to minister the word and pray. This class is not focused on highly visible ministry, but it still requires men who are committed and honorable. Probably modelled after the Seven, it was an established church office of the first century.
Conclusion
The Scripture is a repository with all the knowledge that God’s people require for growth in holiness. This wealth of information is not limited to more esoteric subjects; the New Testament directly describes the organization of healthy, Christ-centered churches. Such churches are local congregations, submitted to the authority of Christ, with delegated authority. They are led by multiple pastors / elders / overseers. Those men are assisted by deacons, who minister to the needy in the congregation. Such a model is streamlined, practical, and – most importantly – Biblical.
Bibliography
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