The Roman Empire: A Summary of Its History
The Roman Empire had a profound effect on both Biblical history and world history. This short sketch provides the main contours. Unless specified otherwise, dates are given as AD. The dates given for emperors refer to the length of their reigns, not the length of their lives.
The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (48 BC – AD 68)
The city of Rome was legendarily founded in 753 BC. It began as a kingdom (753-509 BC), transformed into a republic (509-27 BC), and eventually fell under the control of Julius Caesar. Caesar’s power can be calculated from 48 BC, when he defeated Pompey. Caesar declared himself a king and began a series of reforms, but he was assassinated in 44 BC. Civil war erupted until 29 BC, when Octavian (Caesar’s grandnephew) seized power. By 27 BC, Octavian (63 BC – AD 14) declared that peace had come to Rome. He initiated a series of reforms that apparently returned power to the Senate while actually giving him complete power. In this way Octavian (also known as Caesar Augustus) preserved the appearance of a republic, while transforming Rome into an empire.
Octavian was followed by Tiberius (reigned 14-37) a recluse, and Caligula (37-41), a tyrant who exhausted the treasury and was assassinated. Claudius (41-54) enlarged the empire in North Africa and defeated Bouddica’s uprising in Britain. He was assassinated and followed by Nero (54-68) who had his own mother executed, but Nero was more interested in the arts (and tormenting Christians) than the work of government. He sent general Vespasian to quell a major revolt in Judea, and he committed suicide when the Praetorian Guard declared him a public enemy.
The Flavian Dynasty (AD 68 – 96)
On the news of Nero’s death, three men declared themselves emperor: Servius Sulpicius Galba, Marcus Salvius Otho, and Aulus Vitellius. It was Vespasian, however – quelling the rebellious Jews, at that time – who succeeded, for he seized Egypt, the source of Rome’s grain. This tumultuous year (69) became known as the ‘year of the four emperors.’ Vespasian left the Jewish problem to his son, general Titus, who succeeded him to the emperorship and reigned 79-81. Titus’ reign is notable for the eruption of Mount Vesuvius and the destruction of Pompeii, as well as the completion of the Colosseum. (The Colosseum was begun by Vespasian and funded by the spoils from Judea). Titus was followed by Domitian (81-96), a relatively able emperor, but a severe persecutor of Jews and Christians.
The Nerva-Antonine Dynasty (AD 96 – 192)
Domitian was assassinated in 96, and Nerva (96-98), a respected senator, was chosen as his replacement. He was moderate toward the citizens and (since he had no heir) selected Trajan (98-117) to succeed him. Trajan engaged in a series of wars to expand the empire. Dacia was annexed as a Roman Province. In 116, he fought to the banks of the Tigris River, setting up the provinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia. This was the greatest extent that the Roman Empire would ever assume. Trajan chose Hadrian (117-138) as his successor, who decided to relinquish some territory in the interest of stability. He built the famed ‘Hadrian’s Wall’ between Roman Brittania and unconquered Caledonia (Scotland). He also dealt with a renewed Jewish uprising, crushing the Bar-Kochba revolt in 135. His successor, Antoninus Pius (138-161) was a humane emperor with an unremarkable reign. He selected Marcus Aurelius (161-180), a stoic philsopher and the author of the ‘Meditations.’ Aurelius wrote philosophy while on constant campaigns. He was a sort of ideal ‘Philosopher-King,’ but persecuted Christians as a danger to the unifying religion of the state. Unlike the previous emperors who had chosen successors, Aurelius was succeeded by his son Commodus (177-192) who created a reign of terror and was assassinated.
The Severan Dynasty (AD 193 – 235)
Chaos ensued, and 193 became known as the ‘Year of the Five Emperors,’ as Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus, and Septimius Severus all claimed the throne. Severus (193-211) ultimately succeeded in the civil war, going on to fight in Parthia and Britain. His son Caracalla (211-217) assassinated his brother and co-emperor Geta and gained a reputation for cruelty. His assassin Macrinus (217-218) claimed authority but was executed. Caracalla’s cousin Elagabalus (218-222) became emperor. He was cruel, and perhaps the most debased of all Roman emperors, introducing the worship of a conical black stone and marrying four women, including a vestal virgin. On his assassination, he was succeeded by his cousin Severus Alexander (222-235), who was merely a pawn in the hands of his mother until their assassination.
Crisis of the Third Century (AD 235 – 284)
At this point, the empire descended into chaos. Fifty years of civil war involved 26 claimants to the throne, each of whom had some degree of rule, while many others claimed the throne without success. Among them, Decius made the Imperial Cult obligatory on all subjects and viciously persecuted Christians. Valerian was captured by the Persian Sassanids, eventually dying in captivity. During this time, the empire split into three empires: the Gallic Empire in Gaul and Britain, the Palmyrene Empire in Egypt and Syria, and the remains of the Roman Empire.
Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (AD 284 – 305)
Eventually, Diocletian (284-305), an army commander, was proclaimed emperor. He introduced eastern ceremonies into the court, calling himself ‘lord’ and demanding absolute respect; he also moved the capital from Rome to Milan, in 286. After stabilizing his position, he introduced a unique plan for government. Recognizing the vast size of the empire, he divided it in two, appointing Maximian (285-305) as co-Caesar. Maximian took the western half, while Diocletian took the east. Still, the empire was so large that Diocletian determined that it needed ‘junior Caesars’ to help the two Caesars. Each Caesar selected a successor, Maximian choosing Constantius Chlorus and Diocletian choosing Galerius. The junior Caesars were each given a prefecture, a quarter of the empire. Diocletian’s plan involved the two senior Caesars retiring jointly, leaving their successors to take full control and each selecting their own junior Caesars. In 305 (after initiating the ‘Great Persecution’ against Christians in 303), Diocletian and Maximian retired from public life.
Constantinian Dynasty (AD 305 – 363)
Diocletian’s tetrarchy did not go as planned, and the situation quickly became confused in civil war, with Maximin, Severus, Maxentius, Licinius, and Constantine all engaged in a struggle for power. Eventually, Constantine I (306-337) held control of the western portion of the empire; he engaged in civil war with Maxentius (306-312) and Licinius (308-324) until he became the sole emperor. At the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312, Constantine defeated Maxentius after claiming to see a shining Christian cross in the sky; he subsequently co-authored the Edict of Milan with Licinius in 313, granting freedom of religion. He convened the First Council of Nicea in 325, but lived as a pagan for most (or all) of his life. Constantine is also famous for moving the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was renamed ‘Constantinople.’ He divided the empire between his three sons, who were named (with great creativity) Constantius II in the east (337-361), Constantine II in Britain/Gaul/Spain (337-340), and Constans in Italy/Illyrica/Africa (337-350). The sons quickly began civil war, with Constantius II ultimately succeeding. He was succeeded by Julian (361-363), nicknamed ‘the Apostate’ for his rejection of Christianity, though he was generally tolerant.
Valentinianic Dynasty (AD 364 – 392)
Julian died during a campaign; the army chose Jovian (363-364), but he died soon and the army chose Valentinian I (364-375). He made his brother Valens (364-378) co-emperor, granting him rule over the eastern empire. During this time, the Huns began moving into traditionally Gothic territory. The Goths entered Roman territory as refugees, but tensions escalated until the Goths and Romans were at war, and Valens died in a shocking defeat at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Meanwhile, in the west, Valentinian I was succeeded by Gratian (367-383), who had taken the role of ‘Junior Caesar,’ and his half-brother Valentinian II (375-392). Gratian died at the hands of a usurper, Magnus Maximus, who took control of the west, leaving only Italy to Valentinian II. In the east, Valens was succeeded by the Theodosian Dynasty (see below). Theodosius killed Magnus Maximus and left Valentinian II with nominal power. After Valentinian II died, the Theodosian Dynasty became dominant, but some emperors had the blood of both dynasties in their veins (see below).
Theodosian Dynasty (AD 379 – 457)
Theodosius I ‘the Great’ (379-395) took control of the east after the death of Valens. He was responsible for the sack of Thessalonica and resulting massacre of 7000. He was succeeded by his two sons Arcadius (383-408) in the east and Honorius (393-423) in the west. During their reigns the empire was convulsed by barbarian forces, including Alaric, who ravaged Greece and eventually sacked Rome in 410. The western capital, however, had already been moved to Milan (in 286) and then to Ravenna (in 402). Arcadius in the east was succeeded by Theodosius II (402-450), who became junior Caesar as an infant, while Honorius was succeeded for a brief time by Joannes (423-425), and then – by the effort of Theodosius II – replaced by Valentinian III (425-455), of both Theodosian and Valentinianic blood. Theodosius II in the east was succeeded by Marcian (450-457), who ruled with success. In the west, Valentinian III’s death resulted in chaos, with a string of short-lived emperors: both Petronius Maximus (455) and Olybrius (472) were related to the Theodosians. During much of the Theodosian dynasty, barbarians swarmed into the empire, and the empire only survived by pitting them against each other. The Visigoths invaded Spain around 413, while the Vandals conquered Roman Africa around 430. Attila the Hun invaded the west in 451, refraining from sacking Rome in 452 only because of the entreaties of the Pope Leo.
The End of the Empire
The Eastern Empire (known as the Byzantine Empire) would continue for almost another thousand years, only falling in 1453 to the Ottomon Turks. But with the death of Valentinian III, the west was ruled by a string of emperors: Petronius Maximus (455), after whose death the city of Rome was again sacked by Vandals and Moors in 455, Avitus (455-456), Majorian (457-461), Libius Severus (461-465), Anthemius (467-472), Olybrius (472), Glycerius (473-474), Julius Nepos (474-475), and finally Romulus Augustulus (475-476). Augustulus was forced to abdicate by Odoacer, who became King of Italy and abolished the position of emperor. In all, the Western Empire fell 1229 years after the founding of Rome. It was replaced by barbarian kingdoms, and its mantle would eventually fall to both the Frankish Empire and the Roman Catholic Church.
